The Golden Rule: Write for others as you would have them write for you. It’s the golden rule (of writing). Think about the kinds of sentences that you like to read, that you like to quote from other papers, that you consider effective, and try to write those kinds of sentences in your own papers. Do you quote long passages of plot summary, or do you quote clear and punchy argumentative statements?

Be Quotable: Every sentence in every paper should be quotable. Every sentence should be doing enough work that someone could quote it, either to use your expertise or to quibble with you. If you read a sentence, and you say to yourself, “No one would ever quote that,” then you need to revise it. Even in sentences that are doing routine work, such as introducing a quote, you should be adding enough of your own framing and voice that it could be quoted by someone else.

Make Words, Sentences, and Paragraphs Matter: Every paragraph and every sentence should accomplish something. As you outline a paper, ask what paragraphs need to exist in order for your argument to be successful. As you plan each of your paragraphs, ask why each needs to exist. Once you know why a paragraph needs to exist, ask what sentences need to exist in order for that paragraph to exist. It is often helpful to write out full sentences in an outline, instead of just sprawling prose.

Concision: One definition of “good writing” is: being able to communicate a lot of information in as few words as possible. Write concisely, not wordily. Never use seven words when five words will do; never five when three will do; never three when one. Make every word count.

• Write with concision, instead of with wordiness. Write concisely, not wordily.

Active Voice: Write in the active voice, not the passive. Writing in the active voice gives more information to your reader by stating who is doing what to whom/what (subject, verb, and object). There are some telltale signs that you’re in the passive voice: (1) the noun follows the verb, (2) the preposition “by” is used, and (3) a “to be” verb (e.g. is, am, are, was, were) is used as an auxiliary verb (e.g. The claim is being made by Wilson that one should write in the active voice). Only use the passive voice when it is logical to do so – e.g., when the agent of the action performed is unknown or impossible to define.

• Your writing should be in the active voice, not the passive. You should write in the active voice, not the passive.

Clarity: Another definition of “good writing” is: bringing clarity to complexity. This formulation is two-pronged. First, good writing does not address simple matters; it addresses matters of sufficient complexity that they require explanation. Second, in good writing, complexity does not manifest in confusion; it manifests in clarity, which requires that a writer articulate specific concepts and put them into well-defined relationships (e.g., sequence, cause-and-effect, identity, similarity, contrast, opposition). Good writing is clear, not because it presents simple ideas, but because it presents ideas in the simplest form the subject permits. Say everything relevant in as few words as possible. Study each of your sentences to see what can be deleted without a loss of meaning or emphasis. Be sure to leave in the concrete and specific details and examples that support your ideas.

• In order to be good, writing must always be clear. It should not be simplistic, but the writer should try to present complex ideas in a simple way. Good writing is clear, not because it presents simple ideas, but because it presents ideas in the simplest form the subject permits.

Specificity: Instead of vague generalities, use simpler, more specific language to articulate your point. Be as precise as possible. Neither I nor any other writer I’ve spoken with has ever written “Too Specific” on a paper; we write “Too General” or “Too Vague” all the time.

• Always write clearly. Use simple, specific language to articulate your point.

The Unknown Reader: Write to an unknown reader, which means that you’re not writing to your teacher, who might “know what you mean” or understand a point you’re trying to make because it was discussed in class. You can assume your reader has read the texts you’re writing about, but don’t assume he or she is privy to the analytical vocabulary and methodology you’re using.

• As mentioned in class, we should write to an unknown reader. Write to an unknown reader.

Academic Tone: Maintain an academic tone throughout your paper. Don’t cower from the personal pronoun “I,” but only use it to alert your reader that something very important happens in the current sentence (e.g., that you state your argument: “In this paper, I argue … ”). Don’t refer to current events and pop culture that will be forgotten about in a year: there might seem to be an apt analogy, but in all likelihood it will produce a bizarre jolt out of your academic argument. Avoid clichés and slang.

• I feel you should keep your wording academic. Maintain an academic tone.

Verb Tense: When analyzing a text, write in the present tense, not the past. This tense fills your prose with immediacy. When making historical comments, use the simple past tense. Avoid compound tenses.

• Donne presented his speaker as a rogue. Donne makes his speaker a rogue.
• After Elizabeth had died in 1603, James took the crown. After Elizabeth died in 1603, James took the crown.

Verbs for Action: Use verbs to indicate action. Don’t nominalize them, which means turning them into nouns. Nominalizing adds boring words and takes excitement away from your prose.

• Verb use should indicate action. The use of verbs should be done as an indication of action. Use verbs to indicate action.

Parallel Structures: Clarity increases geometrically with the use of parallel structures. Shape and sharpen the sense of similarity (or difference) between ideas, actions, objects, attributes, and the like by using similar constructions to describe them. Put parallel thoughts in parallel constructions. Use parallel constructions to clarify relationships – to emphasize similarities or to define differences. Using parallel structures is especially important when you’re writing a long sentence.

• Use parallel constructions to clarify relationships, whether one wants to emphasize similarities or one is defining differences. Use parallel constructions to clarify relationships – to emphasize similarities or to define differences.

Subordination: Make the structure of your sentence reflect the structure of your thought. Put your main idea in your main clause, subordinating the less important elements in the sentence to the more important.

• Subordinate the less important elements in a sentence to the more important, so that your main idea is in your main clause. Put your main idea in your main clause, subordinating the less important elements in the sentence to the more important.

Emphasis: Vary sentence length and construction for rhythm. To alert your readers to important ideas, put them in very short or very long sentences; the same is true for paragraphs.

• You should vary sentence length for rhythm. You should also vary sentence construction for rhythm. You should alert your readers to important ideas by putting them in very short or very long sentences. Vary sentence length and construction for rhythm. To alert your readers to important ideas, put them in very short or very long sentences.

Plain English: Most of us need to write more like we talk. Avoid inflated diction. The likelihood of misusing a word you don’t fully understand is much greater than the likelihood of impressing your reader with your pretend sophistication. Whenever you can, even among specialists, use plain English. Avoid jargon.

• The punctilious writer must abstain from aggrandized intonation. Avoid inflated diction.

Empty Repetition: Take out intensifiers and modifiers that are unnecessary because they are implied in the word they’re modifying.

• It was a terrible tragedy. It was a tragedy.

Qualification: Bury dull but necessary qualifiers in the middle of a sentence: doing so keeps attention on your main ideas.

• Though they may be necessary at times, dull qualifiers should go in the middle of a sentence. Bury dull but necessary qualifiers in the middle of a sentence.

Flow: Use pronouns and transitions to link the ideas in successive sentences together.

• Wilson often saw fragmented language in the students’ papers. Wilson told the class to use pronouns and transitions. Since he often saw fragmented language in his students’ papers, Wilson told them to use pronouns and transitions.

Rhythm: Read your prose aloud to hear how it sounds, and revise for elegance.

• Read your sentences out loud and listen to the sound of them, and then revise them so they are more elegant. Read your prose aloud to hear how it sounds, and revise for elegance.

Be Inclusive: Don’t use stereotypes, obviously, but also be aware that some common phrases are secretly exclusive. Be sure to include everyone in your pronouns.

• A writer must be inclusive if he wants to address all mankind. A writer must be inclusive if he or she wants to address all humankind.

The Royal We: Be careful with the royal “we.” It is usually a bad idea to assume that you and your reader act in the same way and believe the same things.

• We use the royal “we” when we probably shouldn’t. Beginning writers often use the royal “we” when they shouldn’t.