# Aphorisms on Punctuation ## expand\_more *Punctuation* is the set of non-alphabetical markings – including commas, colons, semi-colons, dashes, hyphens, apostrophes, quotation marks, and so forth – that aid grammar. *Commas*: Not as a rule, but often commas should come in the places you stop to breathe when you read your prose aloud. - When the theatres were closed \[pause\], Shakespeare turned from drama to verse. More importantly, you must learn and follow the rules of comma usage, which also means knowing when not to use commas. *Commas for Modification*: For an independent clause, one (like this one) that clarifies meaning but can be dropped without disrupting the main sense of the sentence, use a pair of commas on either side (e.g., it would be possible to read, *For an independent clause … use a pair of commas on either side*). The first comma indicates the beginning of the modification, and the second indicates the end. - Shakespeare, who did not receive a rigorous university training, surpassed all the “university wits.” *Commas for Compound Sentences*: Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction to connect two independent clauses. Use commas for compound sentences, but not necessarily for complex sentences. - Spenser was a poet of manners, but Milton was a poet of God. - Spenser and Milton were both great poets. *Commas for Introductory Phrases*: Use a comma to set off introductory phrases (usually prepositional, participial, or infinitive phrases), except when the introductory phrase is three words or less. - Of all the pilgrims in *The Canterbury Tales*, the Monk is my favorite. - In the *Tales* Chaucer created a microcosm of English society. *Commas for Lists*: Use a comma to separate three or more items in a simple series, including the last two items. - Ben Jonson was a poet, playwright, critic, and courtier. *No Commas*: Never use only one comma between a subject and its verb. Don't put a comma between the two nouns in a compound subject, nor the two verbs in a compound predicate, nor the two nouns in a compound object. Do not use commas to set off a dependent clause that is needed in order for the sentence to make sense (e.g. there is no comma in the current sentence after *clause* because *that is needed for the sentence to make sense* is a dependent clause). Usually there should not be a comma before the word “because.” *Semi-colons*: Semi-colons should separate two independent clauses, i.e. either side of the semi-colon could be a complete sentence. Using a semicolon instead of a period signals a close relationship between the two complete but connected clauses. It is not correct to use a semicolon to separate an independent and dependent clause. - Spenser’s career is modeled on Virgil’s; both moved from pastoral to epic. *Semi-Colons for Lists within Lists*: Use semi-colons to separate lists within lists. Make sure all items in a series are of the same kind. - John Milton wrote works of poetry, like *Lycidas*, *Paradise Lost*, and *Paradise Regain’d*; works of drama, like *Comus* and *Samson Agonistes*; and works of prose, like *Of Education*, *Eikonoklastes*, and *The Readie and Easie Way*. *Colons*: Colons separate an independent clause from another clause (usually a dependent clause) that illustrates, extends, or amplifies the independent clause. That is, what comes before the colon should always be a complete sentence; what comes after the colon can be a fragment. - The English canon is centered on four authors: Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, and Milton. *Dashes*: A dash can be used as a hard comma, to subordinate a series of clauses or a complete sentence. It is not a rule, but I only use dashes in pairs, the first dash marking a break in the sentence – for digression, clarification, or amplification – the second marking the resumption of the sentence. - Shakespeare’s plays – whether comedy, tragedy, history, or romance – are all funny in each its own way. *Hyphens*: Hyphenate adjectival compounds. If the word “and” can be inserted between the adjectives in a compound, do not hyphenate; use a comma to separate them. - Marlowe’s atheism is a well-known aspect of his biography. - Marlowe’s atheism is well known. - Marlowe’s atheism is an old, cherished aspect of his biography. *Apostrophes for Possession*: To form the possessive of a *singular noun*, add *‘s*. - Hamlet sees his father’s ghost. To form the possessive of a *plural noun ending in s*, add only an apostrophe. - Hamlet does not foresee his actions’ consequences. To form the possessive of an *irregular plural noun that does not end in s*, add *‘s*. - Polonius dominates his children’s lives. To form the possessive of any *singular proper noun (a name),* add *‘s* even if the name ends in *s*. - Fortinbras’s army marches to Denmark. To form the possessive of a *plural proper noun (a name)*, add only an apostrophe. - Shakespeare bookends the play with the Hamlets’ deaths. Don’t use apostrophes on possessive pronouns. - The English crown is greater than it’s its owner. *Capitalization*: Don’t capitalize willy-nilly just because a concept is important (e.g. don’t capitalize words like *truth* or phrases like *the modern age*). *Italics*: Italics and underlining mean the same thing, but most styles now prefer italics. *Italics for Titles*: Use Italics for titles. - Shakespeare wrote *As You Like It* before *The Tempest*. *Italics for Foreign Words:* Use italics for foreign words. - Milton’s verse is revered for a certain *je ne sais quoi*. *Italics for Terminology*: Use italics to signal the introduction of a new term (which should then probably be defined). Once a term is defined, it is not placed in italics anymore. - Spenser composed *The Faerie Qveene* with what I shall call a *poetics of imperfection*. *Italics for Emphasis*: It is now somewhat passé, but you can use italics to indicate importance. - Perhaps we should recognize that *there are no normals*. *Reverse Italics:* In titles, words that would usually be italicized should be unitalicized. - See *Shakespeare’s* Hamlet *and Modern Culture*. *Quotes for Shorter Titles*: Use quotes for a short poem, i.e. one not printed in a separate volume (e.g. George Herbert’s poem “Mortification” is in his collection *The Temple*); a short story (e.g. Flannery O’Connor’s “A Good Man is Hard to Find”); an article or essay (e.g. Stanley Fish’s essay “Interpreting the *Variorum*” is in his book *Is there a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities*); a song title (e.g. Bob Dylan’s “Desolation Row” is on his album *Highway 61 Revisited*); and an episode of a television or radio show (e.g. the episode of *The Simpsons* titled “Bart the Daredevil”). *Scare Quotes*: Use quotation marks to indicate that someone is using a term inappropriately or that a term is up for debate. - Who exactly is included in “us normals,” to use Gofman’s term?